The Muted-Group Theory claims that because languages of cultures are MAN-made, the language aids in defining, depreciating, and excluding women and that when women attempt to overcome inequality, the fact that communication is dominated by men, they remain at a disadvantage. In other words, because men act as the gatekeeper of communication within a society, the language, itself, as a tool to perpetuate the oppression of the marginalized.
This viral campaign, produced by ALWAYS (a company that manufactures and sells feminine hygiene products), acts as a form of female empowerment by attempting to shed some light on the use of certain language that demeans the female gender. It portrays the idea that language acts as a tool to oppress those groups not in power.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs

The Standpoint Theory is very similar to Deborah Tannen’s Genderlect Theory, however, the developers of the Standpoint Theory cast a broader net. They argue that your view of the world is dependent on where you sit in life. The theory states at the different locations within a social hierarchy allow for different experiences, interpretations, and perceptions of the world. Through the critical tradition of this theory, they argue that the standpoints of the marginalized people provide less false views of the world than do the privileged perspectives of the powerful. In other words, those in power are more blind to what occurs in the real world, they’re blinded because they don’t know what’s really going on.

An example of this theory could be seen in the famous historical quote falsely attributed to Marie Antoinette; “Let them eat cake.” As tradition goes, Marie Antoinette was so blinded by the power of her nobility that she assumed that if the peasants didn’t have bread to eat, then they should just eat cake. Her role at the peak of French Society provides a more false view of the world; she’s only able to see how nobility experience and perceive life and thusly applies these views/beliefs on the entire population of her society.

The Genderlect Theory was developed by Deborah Tannen to explain the difference between the communicative styles of men and women. Tannen believes that the main cause of miscommunication between men and women is the fact that neither party realizes that their encounters are cross-cultural. This premise is rooted in the idea that the ways in which Men and Women experience the world, are completely different. Because of these fundamental differences in the way in which men and women perceive the world their resulting interactions differ and lend themselves to the formation of two different “gender cultures”.

Tannen goes on to describe certain ways in which the differing cultures make the way in which they interact, different. The main difference between the two groups is their communicative goals; mean seek to affirm their status within their society and women seek to form a human connection during interaction. Women attempt to form connections in many different ways such as offering nonverbal cues such as head nods, offering supportive feedback during conversations, or interrupting to share agreement.

Philipsen’s Speech Code Theory says that each and every culture has their own speech codes. Speech Codes are systems of socially constructed symbols and meanings, premises, and rules that pertain to interaction between those who make up the particular culture. These speech codes used by speakers and listeners are utilized to create and interpret their communication which make up their realities.

If one were to view the culture and communication of the Lumbee Indians of south-eastern North Carolina they’d easily be able to see support for the Speech Codes Theory. This tribe has developed its own particular speech codes that flood their communication. Their speech codes are woven into their communication and become more prevalent when you view the interaction between those who share the culture.

The word “cultivation” is defined as “the process of trying to acquire or develop a quality or skill.” The Cultivation Theory is considered a social theory that delves into the long-term effects of television. Cultivation Theory is about the misperception/misinterpretation of what is true in our world. Gerber believes that modern television has surpassed religion as the key storyteller in our culture and that heavy television viewing creates an “exaggerated belief in a mean and scary world. J. Cohen and G. Weimann argue that “the primary proposition of the cultivation theory states that the more time people spend ‘living’ in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social ‘reality’ portrayed on television.”

George Gerber argues that the Cultivation Process is like the pull of a gravitational field and the magnitude of TV’s influence is not the same for every viewer, but everyone IS affected by it.” Gerber describes three prongs that constitute the Cultivation Theory. The first prong is the Institutional Process which includes research that addresses scholars’ concerns for the reasons why media produce the message they do. Secondly, is the Message System Analysis which utilizes content analysis to study what exactly are the messages that TV projects. The third prong of the Cultivation Theory is the Cultivation Analysis which deals with how TV’s content might affect viewers.

http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023%2FA%3A1018709905920.pdf

In our modern society, where mass media (print, tv, film, advertising, etc) has become such a prevelant part of our culture, we cannot escape the flood of signs and symbols. We are bombarded on a daily basis with signs and symbols that “mean” something else. Most of the time, we do not give these signs/symbols a second though; we, generally, automatically assign the learned meaning to those signs or symbols.

Semiotics is the study of meaning based on theories of signs and symbols. Charles Peirce argues that there are three different types of signs based on their relationships with the objects they “portray”. Symbolic signs show no resemblance to the objects they reference. Iconic Signs have a perceived resemblance with the objects they portray. Indexical signs are directly connected with their referents.

http://frenemyclothing.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/swastika4.png

Rhetoric is defined as the art of persuasive speaking or writing. Rhetoric is one of the oldest courses of study throughout history. If you think about the time from which Rhetoric was born, it becomes obvious why its study has endured for so long.

During the time of Aristotle and Plato, mass media didn’t exist, print media didn’t exist; communication only included speech and writing. If you wanted to persuade someone, you’d have to have a knack for it. Through the utilization of Logos, Ethos, and Pathos, persuasion could become an art form.

The need for persuasion still exists, whether it is in marketing, research, or politics. We’ll never find a time when all humans are on the same page about anything; the ability to artfully persuade the masses will always be necessary.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Hitler’s_%22Battle%22

Hirokawa and Gouran state that group interaction has a positive effect on decision making. They believe that in order to arrive at high-quality solutions then the group must work together and adhere to the four functions.
First, the group members must analyze the problem, they need to take a realistic look at current conditions; they must determine the nature, extent, and probable cause of the issue at hand. Then the group must establish criteria (Goal Setting) for judging proposed solutions; without the criteria being set, it is likely that the decision will be driven by politics rather than reason. Next, the group must Identify the Alternatives; they need to come up with as many ideas to solve the problem as possible. The last of the four functions is to evaluate the positive and negative characteristics of the alternatives.
The two also stress that the order isn’t as crucial as the fact that all four functions are completed. However, they also agree that to arrive at the HIGHEST quality solution, the group will adhere to the functions in a step-by-step order.

The Coordinated Management of Meaning theory finds its roots in interaction/conversation. The theory states that through the use of language and communication, participants co-construct their own realities. The theory has applications among practical, interpretive, and critical theory.

One way that CMM could be viewed within a practical level is among the advertising industry. The conversation that occurs between the ad itself and the viewer can evoke certain reactions depending on the use of certain language, tone, or non-verbals. Through the use of certain words/certain kind of language, advertising and the viewers can construct their own realities which can elicit certain responses from the viewers of ads.

For example, many advertising agencies utilize “shame appeals” as a way to motivate potential customers. Take for instance, weight loss medication, the advertising agency may attempt to create a new reality for the viewer (you’re fat, you’re unhealthy, you’re gonna die young, you’re going to be single for ever). The shame of the viewer’s “new reality” motivates them to act in a way that the advertising agencies predicts (purchases, subscriptions, etc).

Leon Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance is characterized by the mental anguish and stress caused when an individual holds contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values. The theory states that the discomfort felt by a person experiencing cognitive dissonance will act as a motivating force to reduce the dissonance. In addition to attempting to reduce the dissonance, that a person will actively avoid any new information that may increase the feelings of dissonance.

An example of Cognitive Dissonance Theory could be seen in Internalized Homophobia. In today’s society where suicides resulting from bullying are becoming more and more prevalent, I believe Internalized Homophobia to be one of the main reasons. Many children are raised thinking that homosexuality is wrong, and therefore anyone who participates in homosexual behavior is wrong as well. As young men and women begin to identify as Homosexual, their ideas, beliefs, and values begin to become misaligned. Many homosexuals will even admit to having participating in homophobic bullying in an attempt to cloak their sexuality and relieve some of the dissonance.